Law and Morality Essay

Morality can be described as a set of values common to society, which are normative, specifying the correct course of action in a situation and the limits of what society considers acceptable. Law on the other hand according to Osborn’s Concise Law Dictionary is a rule of conduct imposed and reinforced by the sovereign. A body of principles regognized and applied by the state in the administration of justice. If law is to enforce morals, then it is faced with the problem that what one person considers immoral, another might not, so which viewpoint should the law uphold. This can be seen in the case of Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority (1986) where Mrs Gillick sought a declaration that what she saw as an immoral activity (making contraceptive advice and treatment available to girls under the age of consent) was by nature of its immorality, illegal. This was a moral conflict as some saw this as immoral – it encouraged underage sex – others felt it was moral as young girls would engage in underage sex anyway , but contraceptives would prevent unwanted pregnancies. Which viewpoint would the law support. The House of Lords ruled against Mrs Gillick but stated that they were governed by the relevant statutes rather than moral arguments. What then is the relationship between law and morality. What are the differences and similarities The vast differences between existing theories of the basis of law often fail to notice the fact that they are based on the practice of comparing an act to certain standards in order to determine its legality. [1] Different approaches differ in terms of which standards are compared and assessed, though both ultimately assess acts to certain standards to determine their legality or morality. The two leading theories on the topic are positivism and naturalism – the debate between the two has fuelled theorists for centuries. Many observers of positivism presume that it completely dismisses any role of morality in the application of the law, while naturalism bases the existence and validity of law on moral bases. Although the theories are fundamentally different, it is argued that a link between law and morality is glaringly obvious and unavoidable, no matter which side one chooses to follow or favour. This paper will seek to argue that claims which deny any link between law and morality are weak and flawed at best, and apply in a limited manner to simple, straightforward cases. The mere existence of the ‘hard case’ and of court deliberation provides a great deal of evidence for not only the existence of the link between law and morality, but also the necessity of such a link. The naturalist and positivist theories will be explored in order to assess whether the link between law and morality can survive its critics and strengthen the faith of its followers. Legal Positivism Positivists claim that objective morality simply cannot exist because values consist of different attitudes towards and beliefs about certain values. [2] Attitudes and beliefs differ between individuals and cause us to react to a certain act in a subjective manner. Moral perceptions are predominantly emotional, so that such assessments in the realm of the law cause uncertainty and inconsistency. It also fails to recognise difficult cases and the possibility of new cases arising. The apparent main flaw of positivism is that it is unable to explain the legal deliberation which takes place in the courtroom, particularly the difficult cases which have no apparent ‘yes or no’ answer. The very difficulties posed by interpreting the law and applying it to everyday circumstances are unable to be adequately explained by positivism. Indeed, there is a distinction here between hard and soft positivists; the latter do recognise a form of moral basis upon which written laws are perched. Yet both soft and hard positivists are at pains to explain how hard cases arise, in which there is simply no right or wrong answer, and in which morality may unavoidably take a central role. Morality and the Naturalist Approach Naturalists claim that non-legal considerations such as ideological, moral and political factors are not only relevant to the posited law, but that law is also based on such factors. The central argument of naturalism is that objective knowledge of right and wrong can and does exist, and that this provides the basis for legal decisions as well as for the validity of law. Naturalists such as Aquinas[3] claim that natural law provides the basis of validity for posited laws. Rousseau[4] believes that positive law cannot override or entrench upon certain existing natural rights; Aristotle claims that natural justice exists independently of individual perceptions of or opinions on it. [5] Jeremy Bentham proposed utilitarianism where moral action was the one that produced good for many, even it was at the expense of one – the greatest good for the greatest number. John Stuart Mill’s refinement of the idea argues that while this is true the individual should not have to follow society’s morals and should be free to act as they wish provided they do not harm others. The problem arises in defining who are included in others and what is harm. It is clear that naturalist claims to provide a strong link between law and morality, the latter of the two being a basis upon which the former is based. Judges, when they interpret and apply posited law, often make non-legal considerations in order to apply the law effectively. Naturalism, however, has a major flaw in that it claims the existence of objective morality. There are many case examples which suggest otherwise. [6] One presented with two rather extreme and different concepts of the link (or not) between law and morality. Is it plausible that such a links exists? Is there evidence for such a link, and how does it serve to affect how the law is administered? Does there really need to be objective knowledge of right and wrong in order for the link to be maintained? In order to explore these questions, the ever-elusive ‘difficult case’ will be assessed. It will be argued that the link between law and morality is not weakened by the argument that objective knowledge of right and wrong is nonexistent. The debate over the relationship between law and morality came to the forefront in the Hart/Devlin debate which followed the publication of Wolfenden Report in 1957. The report recommended the legalization of prostitution and homosexuality on the particularly untilitarian basis that â€Å"the law should not intervene in the private lives of citizens or seek to enforce an particular pattern of behaiour further than necessary† to protect others. Hart supported the report’s approach stating that legal enforcement of moral code is unnecessary. Devlin on the other hand was strongly opposed to the report. He felt that society had a certain moral standard which law was obliged to uphold as society would fall apart without a common morality. Devlin felt that this morality should be based on the views of the ‘right-minded person’ and that legislature should adhere to three basic principles: (1) Individuals should be allowed as much freedom and privacy as is possible without compromising morality. (2) Parliament and the judiciary should be cautious about changing laws relating to morality and (3) punishment should be used to prevent actions considered abominable to ‘right-minded people’. Hart opposed this view questioning what was ‘right-minded’ and submitted four reasons for not criminalizing what the ‘right-minded person† objected to. (1)Punishment of someone does harm to them only and if their actions involved no one else this was not right. (2) Free will is very moral, so interferance with free will would be immoral, (3) Free will allows learning through experimentation and (4) legislation surpressing an individual’s sexuality will harm them, as it can affect their emotional state. For the majority of legal issues, judges are not required to deviate from posited law and precedent in order to decide. The law makes murder wrong, and it has been a long-standing principle that taking the life of another is morally abhorrent. Yet what of the ‘hard cases’? What if A kills B in self-defence? What if C forced A to kill B else A lose his own life? What if the application of a law is indeterminate? Can posited law be applied without recourse to moral reasoning? Positivists such as Dworkin and Hart differ in their approach. Dworkin claims that there will always be applicable law,[7] while Hart claims that judges can make non-legal considerations under such circumstances. [8] Hart’s theory is applicable to the less open-textured terms where changes made by non-legal considerations are the result of â€Å"resemblances which can reasonably be defended as both legally relevant and sufficiently close. †[9] The judge thus utilises morality as a way of choosing between pre-existent definitions, without devising his own definitions. Although Hart is classed as a positivist, he does acknowledge a â€Å"core of indisputable truth in the doctrines of natural law†[10] which enables law to be based on something more than simply factual considerations. Hart’s theory can be interpreted as recognising a form of natural law, although he does stipulate that having recourse to moral values does not always ensure that law and its application will be just. This assessment of Hart’s approach is plausible, and it serves to create a link between law and morality which avoids the objective criticism of the naturalists. It provides a strong argument for a link between law and morality which is based on interpretational, social considerations which are evident in the courtroom today. It is perhaps necessary to query: does the law define what is right and wrong, or do we determine good and bad independently of the law? There are certainly evident customs in society which have strong influences on the way we behave. Such customs are not implemented by the law or backed by a sanction; they are simply examples of moral codes within a society which exist independently to the law. Does this mean that law and morality have no connection so that the latter can only be found in customs? Does a moral rule backed by the law become a valid law no matter what its content? It is arguable that even majority abhorrence of an act does not make it an immoral act per se, despite the fact that societies need a shared moral outlook in order to exist. [11] It could thus be suggested that the law is simply an embodiment of the current moral outlook of society; like morality the law changes according to attitudes and social tolerance. It is such observations that cause the positivist shunning of the link between law and morality to become less convincing. It is even arguable that the obeying of law is based on the recognition of the moral rule that law should be obeyed; the threat of sanction is evidently not enough to deter some. It could further be argued that the only reason that legislation has authority as law is because of the moral structure of a society. As has already been mentioned, the law develops and evolves according to moral outlooks; this can be seen where laws prohibiting same sex marriages and abortion have been abolished. If the law were completely disconnected from morality, why has it developed and evolved over time? Why does social pressure to repeal or change law often achieve its goal? The Link Between Law and Morality – Evidence Dworkin claims that courts refer to non-legal (moral) standards when deciding hard cases. Assessing and taking into account moral and political considerations has the potential to create a complex web of law and â€Å"justify the network as a whole†. [12] It is strongly arguable that deciding difficult cases without appealing to non-legal considerations is futile – the reason that such cases are ‘hard’ is because the law does not provide enough direction. However, it is important here to stress that decisions are not free to be made according to personal convictions – judges are on the contrary required to carefully weigh social factors in applying and interpreting the law. Dworkin’s theory in this sense is able to escape the positivist criticism that non-legal convictions are ultimately subjective. Rather, the judge is assigned the difficult interpretative task which is seen constantly in court. This is evident in cases such as that of Re A (Conjoined Twins)[13] in which moral judgements were inevitable and necessary in applying the law to the specific circumstances of the case. Ultimately, the judges were faced with the decision of killing one twin in order to save the other, or to not act and cause the death of both twins. While moral judgements are dangerous ground here, a positivist could not argue that the law as it is could be applied simply and without problem – often the law is simply not enough. The law in this case proved of very little aid – how is one to decide whether A’s life has more importance or value than B’s life? While moral considerations could have caused the decision to fall either way, it must be stressed that such situations must risk the dangerous ground created by moral convictions, particularly because the law provides little guidance. Simple cases indeed provide evidence that a link between law and morality is not only non-existent, but also not necessary. [14] Yet the ever-emerging hard cases cry otherwise; they not only highlight the constant shortcomings of posited law, they also emphasise the need to acknowledge and utilise the link between law and morality. Although theorists claim that natural law need not override positive law, except when the two conflict, this serves to strengthen the link between law and morality. If there is no link between law and morality, then how can conflict occur in the first place? Why does public outrage occur when an ‘unjust’ law breaks the boundaries of social tolerance? Those who claim that there is no link between law and morality utilise the naturalist claim to objective morality as their basis for criticism. Yet the term ‘universal morality’ need not apply to the universe as a whole. It is plausible, and certainly does not discredit the naturalist theory, that ‘universality’ or ‘objectivity’ remains as such despite being applied or interpreted differently between societies. Because the universal moral to preserve life may allow the sick to be killed in primitive societies to save sparse resources for the healthy, while requiring that all efforts be made to save every life possible in richer, more able societies. The moral principle – the preservation of life – still remains existent, it is simply expressed and applied differently between societies. [15] Conclusion There are various theories which discuss how law and morality should relate to each other. The current approach by the legal system seem to be that a common morality , based on traditional values should be maintained by the law as exposed by Devlin. Cases such as Shaw v Director of Public Prosecutions (1961) and Knuller v Director of Public Prosecutions ( 1972) made use of the conspiracy to corrupt moral. This had not been done since the 19th century. This was the beginning of the law to attempt to uphold society’s moral values according to Devlin’s doctrine. This approach continued as the more recent case of R v Brown (Anthony) 1992 demonstrates. The defendants had had willingly consented to various sado-masochistic practices and none of them reported it to the police. Yet they were prosecuted and their convictions were upheld by both the House of Lords and The European Court of Human rights, based on public policy to defend the morality of society. Whether or not the law should uphold the moral values of society is still debated. Those who criticise the link between law and morality often rely on the argument that no single opinion of correctness can exist,[16] yet such criticisms presuppose that such a link requires a single notion of correctness or justice. [17] It does not require such a single notion; it merely requires the recognition that legal considerations are often not enough, and that the interpretational practice which takes place is indeed a result of the link between law and morality. To ultimately deny a link between law and morality is to entirely discredit legal precedents, lengthy assessments of judge decisions, and the controversy of many difficult cases. It is also to turn away from the glaringly evident evolutions and changes which have occurred in the legal sphere – to ignore the changing of legal standards according to societal outlooks. Such evidence is difficult to ignore. Upon which other basis does the law stand if it does not reflect the moral tolerances and standards of the society which is subject to it? Bibliography R Alexy, ‘On the Thesis of a Necessary Connection between Law and Morality: Bulygin’s Critique’ (2000) 2 RJ 13, 138-147. T Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologiae’, in Selected Political Writings, JG Dawson (trans), AP D’Entreves (ed) (BB, Oxford 1970). J Bentham, Of Laws in General, HLA Hart (ed) (AP, London 1970a). J Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, JH Burns, HLA Hart (eds) (AP, London 1970b). E Bulygin, ‘Alexy’s Thesis of the Necessary Connection between Law and Morality’ (2002) 2 RJ 13, 133-137. P Devlin, The Enforcement of Morals (OUP, New York 1996). R Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Belknap Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986). J Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (OUP, New York 1980). HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (CP, Oxford 1961). HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OCP, Oxford 1994). DD Raphael, Moral Philosophy (OUP, Oxford 1994). R Wacks, Understanding Jurisprudence (OUP, Oxford 2005). ———————– [1] R Wacks, Understanding Jurisprud). ence (OUP, Oxford 2005 [2] DD Raphael, Moral Philosophy (OUP, Oxford 1994) ch. 2. [3] T Aquinas, ‘Summa Theologiae’, in Selected Political Writings, JG Dawson (trans), AP D’Entreves (ed) (BB, Oxford 1970) pt. 2, qu. 94, art. 2. [4] JJ Rousseau, The Social Contract (OUP, Oxford 1762). [5] Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, H Rackham (trans) (William Heineman, London 1938). [6] Corbett v Corbett (1970) 2 WLR 1306 CA per Ormrod LJ. [7] R Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Belknap Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1986) 32-34. [8] HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (2nd edn, OCP, Oxford 1994) 145-147. [9] HLA Hart, The Concept of Law (CP, Oxford 1961) 127. [10] HLA Hart, 1994, op. cit. , 146. [11] P Devlin, The Enforcement of Morals (OUP, New York 1996). [12] R Dworkin, 1986, op. cit. , 245. [13] (2000) 4 All ER 961, (2001) 1 FLR 1 CA. [14] J Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (OUP, New York 1980) 33-34. [15] J Finnis, 1980, op. cit. , 34. [16] E Bulygin, ‘Alexy’s Thesis of the Necessary Connection between Law and Morality’ (2002) 2 RJ 13, 133-137. [17] R Alexy, ‘On the Thesis of a Necessary Connection between Law and Morality: Bulygin’s Critique’ (2000) 2 RJ 13, 138-147.

Mint Lube Case Study

Banin Akif MBA – I Seat # 7049 Operations Management CASE STUDY (MINIT-LUBE INC. ) Q. 1What constitutes the mission of Minit-Lube? Ans:The mission statement for Minit-Lube can be derived as followed: Our Mission: To provide fast, reliable and superior services in a customer friendly environment while ensuring lowest possible fares. Q. 2How does the Minit-Lube operation strategy provide competitive advantage? Ans:Minit-Lube operations strategy provides the organization advantage over its competitors in the following ways: Services Design: Minit-Lube has a superior service design as it provides fast oil-change, interior cleaning and lubrications services to 3 cars at a time. – Quality management: Quality exceeds normal standards as all employees are neatly dressed and fully trained from minit-lube school. – Process: Efficient use of human resource enables fast service provision as three workers simultaneously work on a car to provide oil-change services. – L ocation: Spotless environment provides customer a refreshing feeling. – Layout design: Minit-Lube layout supports process focused ‘job shop’ practice which maximizes the efficiency and quality. – Human Resource: Well trained staff graduated from minit-lube school, ensuring cost effectiveness by building good customer relationships and providing speedy and accurate service. Each individual specializes in its own work enabling the maximum level of service. – Scheduling: Service providedin least possible time frame with use of efficient human resource in order to meet customer schedules. – Maintenance: Minit-Lube provides reliable maintenance solutions because of their trained staff and superior operations management. Q. 3 Is it likely that Minit-Lube has increased productivity over its more traditional competitors? Why? How would we measure productivity in this industry? Ans:Minit-Lube increased productivity over its traditional competitors in the following ways: – Well trained/educated labor: labor plays a vital role in productivity and as employees of minit-lube are both well educated and trained, they increase the productivity of the organization. More Output in lesser time: As compared to its competitors, at minit-lube the car comes in and goes out in only 10 mins which significantly increases the output and therefore, productivity. Also, providing service to 3 cars simultaneously also enhances the productivity if the competitors are servicing less than 3 cars keeping all other factors constant. Productivity= Output____ Input = No. of cars serviced in an hour____ Labor hours put in by the team

‘A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society’

â€Å"No one then had any compelling reason to take my hypothesis seriously, but by November 1952 I liked it well enough to print DNA  ® RNA  ® protein on a small piece of paper that I taped on the wall above my writing table in my rooms at Clare College.From the day of our first meeting, Francis Crick and I thought it highly likely that the genetic information of DNA is conveyed by the sequence of its four bases. But we knew it was premature to promote this idea before the structure of DNA was known. However, the moment we first saw how to build a double helix out of the four base pairs, it was clear that the essential uniqueness of a gene must reside in its respective sequence of four bases.†So wrote James D. Watson in his book, A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society. In this work, told with refreshing honesty, is the human story of how Watson and Francis Crick won a Nobel Prize for what may be the most important advance in the life sciences since Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species.In this collection of essays (written for a variety of occasions during the past three decades), Watson discusses the science and sociology of several issues – foremost are recombinant DNA, the nature of cancer research, the past, present, and future of DNA the Human Genome Project and its bioethical problems.The book starts with an autobiographical discussion of the events in Watson’s life that preceded his discovery of the double helix. He then describes his scientific mentors, collaborators and rivals, as well as his philosophy on science. (Watson’s advice for budding scientists: learn from the winners, take risks, have a fallback, have fun and stay connected.)In 1953, two young, unknown scientists sparked a worldwide revolution. Studying DNA for clues to the nature of genes, James Watson and Francis Crick deduced its molecular composition – two chains twisted into a double helix – and immediately realized that th e structure implied how genes were copied and passed from one generation to the next.Their observation has had extraordinary consequences: the discovery of a genetic code that all living things share and the realization that the code translates into proteins; the ability to alter an organism's genetic make-up; recognition that diseases like cancer begin when genes go wrong; the foundations of a biotechnology industry and the means of cloning plants and animals; a start on cataloguing human genes; and the glimmer of a new kind of medicine that uses DNA therapeutically.As public concern about genetically modified food mounts, here is Watson's salutary reminder, from a previous era of DNA anxiety, that restrictions on potentially rewarding research are justifiable only if there is robust evidence of likely harm.Commenting on the 1970s War on Cancer, he warns that effective leadership of publicly funded research initiatives, such as the current search for an AIDS vaccine, demands the co urage to support promising but risky new ideas and prune away anything less than the best. And as the first Director of the Human Genome Project, now approaching its climax, he acknowledges the past evils of eugenics but argues fiercely for the need to balance potential misuses of genetic data with the overwhelming benefits of a rational attack on the roots of disease.In an essay on cancer research and the â€Å"war on cancer,† Watson tells us that to win wars one must know the enemy and the location of the battlefield. When Richard Nixon declared a war on cancer, this information was not yet available. The discovery and elucidation of the action of oncogenes and of cancer viruses were pivotal for understanding the terrain, planning the strategy, and pursuing the war. Watson provides numerous examples to stress the necessity of research in the basic sciences for developing successful therapies against cancer.

Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Justice - Essay Example Justice is the subject which is like the mirage for the philosophers, politicians, sociologists, economists and various types of non-governmental organizations. No two human beings are alike, their expectations are not alike, their reactions to the various life-situations are not alike, and how then a uniform system of justice can be framed that satisfies the needs of all? Is it correct for an individual, when all the avenues for seeking justice are closed, to remain satisfied thinking about the platitude, ‘It is better to deserve without receiving, than to receive without deserving’? That would be the defeatist attitude towards life, and such a man would reach the dead end of the road in the pursuit of creativity in life. The greatest contributor in the hot race of securing justice is the concerned individual, and not any outside agency. When one realizes that one is the creator of one’s destiny and not the victim, the gates for the mansion of justice will automa tically open. Aristotle suggests that justice occurs when everybody gets what they deserve. But the question is how to achieve that state? Does a man know what he deserves and at what level of internal and external progression he is placed? Self-introspection is the beginning of the process of seeking justice. Even the best governors of society can provide a reasonably good framework of rights within which individuals can follow their own values, but that cannot be the perfect mode that satisfies the cravings of one and all. Political activity at the highest form of its perfection will fall short of providing assurance of good life to all. Governance under all political philosophies be they capitalism, communism, socialism, theocracy, fundamentalism and the like have failed to provide total justice to an individual. As such, political establishment is not the panacea to secure equitable justice

Ohio Senate Race 2012 Sherrod Brown vs. Josh Mandel Case Study

Ohio Senate Race 2012 Sherrod Brown vs. Josh Mandel - Case Study Example The key issue that the candidates are asking voters to consider is the recently passed health care law, popularly known as â€Å"Obamacare.† On one hand, Brown, just as a majority of Democrats, likes the law and supported its passage. On the other hand, Mandel wants this law repealed (Torry, â€Å"Healthcare†). Indeed, the healthcare issue has been divisive not only amongst Ohioans, but also across the entire nation. This issue is important because Ohioans will identify the candidate who will support their preferred choice for healthcare. The two candidates are asking voters to consider the issue of abortion, which is another issue that draws emotions in the American society with people being either pro-choice or against abortion. This issue is crucial, especially amongst women voters, since they need to make a decision regarding the candidate who will support their needs. In addition, the recent global financial crisis is another issue that the candidates are asking vo ters to consider. In line with this, voters will want to know the candidate who will bring measures that reduced the States federal debt while improving the economy of the state (Torry, â€Å"Federal Debt†). On one hand, Brown portrays himself as a defender of the middle class and  a supporter of the rights of women. ... Conversely, Mandel projects Brown’s pro-choice image as views of an extremist (Sewell). Through campaign ads, debates, and public rallies, the candidates are able to get their messages out to the voters. In fact, the Ohio Senate race is the most expensive race this election year (Davidson). Hence, various people and groups have spent money on ads in this campaign since the stakes are high. The candidates have tried hard to avoid any gaffes and controversies that might cost them the race due to the thin margin in the opinion polls. However, Mandel’s gaffe of calling Mourdock a â€Å"gentleman† and his remarks about abortion a â€Å"class act† might influence the voting patterns amongst women (Sewell). Nonetheless, Mandel indicated that he did not agree with Mourdock’s statement and the media failed to highlight this issue. The media’s coverage of the race is faultless. In this case, the local media and the national media have been instrumental in highlighting the issues that these two candidates propose to the voters. In addition, the analysis and the reporting have been fair since each candidate appears to have equal airplay by the media covering the race. Brown’s message to the voters regards the improvement of the State’s economy, and he provides specifics on the issue of taxes. On the other hand, Josh’s main message to the voters on tax opposes Brown’s message on tax extensions. However, the two candidates do not provide the specifics that lay a plan on reducing the deficit that the State is currently facing (Torry, â€Å"Federal Debt†). Thus, the media  are  not distorting the messages from these two candidates as the two candidates failed to provide a clear approach of dealing with the

Race Relations (Black and White) on the Homefront during World WarII Research Paper

Race Relations (Black and White) on the Homefront during World WarII - Research Paper Example Race, racism and race relations have thus been a complicated issue in the history of the United States. This is drawn from the strange institution that slavery created all the way into the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Even during the time America was supposed to be joined as one, in the World War 2, these scarred relations still popped their head, not only abroad on the battle fields but also back home at the home front (Parsons, & O’Brien, 9). One significant factor during the Second World War on the Home front was the Fair Employment Practices (FEPC) implemented in the United States by the US Executive Order number 8802. This required companies with contracts from the government not to discriminate on the basis of religion or race. It was a move intended to help Mostly African Americans, but other minorities to obtain jobs in the home front industry. It was signed by President Roosevelt and stated that there was not supposed to be discrimination in the employment of w orkers in the government or the defense industry based on their race, or creed or color, or the nation from which they draw their ancestry. This order led to numerous strikes and challenges from irate white workers who so it as an infringement on their rights (Garfinkel, 37). African Americans It was later greatly enhanced by another order. Considered one of the most significant breakthroughs for Blacks and women on the job front, it also facilitated great industry in the country at the home front during the war. It was about the same time that the African American Community established the Double V Campaign. It was a campaign based not only on the war on fascism overseas during the war, but also on racism too at home. There was a large number of mostly poor Southerners who moved to munitions centers for the recruitment process. The tension that was at these centers was very high. Cities like Detroit, Chicago and Harlem were mostly the focal points of this tension. In 1943, they exp erienced very violent race riots. It was at this time that the Pittsburgh Courier came up with the Double V Campaign (Wynn, 60). The gist of the problem back home was mostly based on the complaints by the soldiers at war overseas that they were being treated as second class citizens even during wartime. The Detroit Race riots that broke out in Detroit, Michigan in 1943 took about three days before troops could return order. It was majorly a riot between blacks and whites and caused a lot of destruction. During around this time, the World War II was still on, and tension between blacks and whites in this city had escalated to very high levels. It is ironical that at such times, patriotism is usually said to be at the highest of levels. Since the war began, the populations of the city had gradually grown as a result of the booming defense industries intended to supply the resources for the war at the home front. A lot of African Americans arrived, mostly from the South (Capeci, & Wilk erson, 47). The riots were started by an innocent fight between a black man and a white man. It became a brawl that involved several groups of black men and white men that spilled over to the rest of the city. This confrontation started from a rumor that a black woman had been assaulted by a white man, whereas there was another rumor that stated it was a white woman who had been raped and killed by a black man. Either

The Life of Mary Jemison Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Life of Mary Jemison - Essay Example decades before and after the American Revolution; many captives, once adopted and integrated into an Indian community, refused the opportunity to return home, finding life in Indian society more rewarding. In 1823 Mary Jemison related her life story to James Seaver, a doctor who lived near her home in western New York. Seaver’s story of â€Å"the white woman of the Genessee,† as she became known, sold over 100,000 copies in 1824† (Captured By Indians: Mary Jemison Becomes an Indian). This paper briefly explains opinions of Mary Jemison about native American culture and relationship between Native Americans and Anglo-Americans in the eighteenth century based on the autobiography of Mary Jemison written by James Seaver. In family and society, Native Americans projected themselves as one of the most civilized community. But in the battlefield they never behaved like that. In fact they were so cruel in the battlefield that they never exhibit any humanitarian methods while fighting with others. Native Americans was loved their beloved ones deeply, but they never shown any sympathy or mercy towards other communities. In fact they were so cruel and their brutality was so severe that they never hesitated in kidnapping and killing of innocent people from other communities. Mary’s complete family has been brutally assassinated by the Native American tribes, The Indians, which forced Mary to describe them as brutal and uncivilized tribes The Native American culture during 18 th and 19 th centuries were not much civilized. Even though, her family members were killed by the Indians (Native Americans); the Indians have shown some mercy towards her and adopted her to the Native Indian community even though she was a white female. Mary has realized that even though the Indians are so cruel in the battlefield, they were not so in the family after staying together with them for a longer period. It was the duty of the men to protect the villages and homesteads as per the

To Introduce Dameware Mini Remote Control Software to our Research Proposal

To Introduce Dameware Mini Remote Control Software to our InformationTechnology Section - Research Proposal Example It helps to monitor and control remote sites so that people are not required to be there physically. It is efficient when used to remote control servers so that they can be managed from remote locations. This paper will analyze the use of this software and how this software will help reduce expenses for most operations. Chapter 1 1.1 Thesis and focus The proposal is aimed at investigating in the Dameware mini remote control software and its effectiveness and efficiency to the organization. Currently, organizations are after high productivity. In undertaking this research, information technology department will be interviewed on the usefulness of the Dameware mini remote control software. In addition, training will also be carried out so that they get the right skills to run the department. In adopting the Dameware mini remote control software the organization will be in a position to formulate policies with much ease. The purpose of the proposal is to test my ability on whether I can actually research on a business proposal, will also check on whether I have the ability to plan an extended business proposal, if I can cite locate, and even criticize on data that has been done by other scholars during my proposal writing and finally to assess my ability if I can outline special features of various types of proposals. The purpose of this statement will be to evaluate the implementation of Dameware mini remote control software in the information technology department. The specific objectives of the proposal will be to establish the benefits accrued from the Dameware mini remote control software, to evaluate efficiency of Dameware mini remote control software before it is implemented in the IT department, and to identify the defects that may be associated with Dameware mini remote control software. The proposal is aimed at increasing efficiency of organization. Technology currently has taken over every aspect that is being done in any organization. In many organizat ions, an estimate of 80% of the total work being done is mainly done by the support of technology. In employing the Dameware mini remote control software in an organization, productivity is greatly improved. On the other hand, there are other operations which are harmful to human beings, technology will do it best. Lastly, in using technology, time will be saved thus work will be efficient to the users. 1.2 Introduction The Dameware mini remote control software  is remotely supported software that is in place in many organizations. It is a software program that mainly deals with remotes. It is related to the Virtual Network Computing, but the difference is that it has other functionalities like; it can install the server on a demand, smart card support and pass through authentication. It is also termed Dameware mini remote control software. It is enabled in such a way that it can support many more that one monitor in a given environment, including other functions such as encryptio n and the transfer of files have been enabled currently. It is an enterprise system management application meant for windows that give administrators the control on the remote client computers. It offers an integration of composed Microsoft Windows NT administration utilities that has been incorporated in a centralized interface for management of remote in the window servers and workplaces. Majority of the standards utilities are added into the explorer-style

Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 3

Critique - Essay Example nimous concern that there will be a knowledge-based generational gap if higher education is not transformed to keep with the accelerating changes of digital information. Levine and Dean do identify and make the valid claim that the majority of students believe they will achieve success based on previous generation’s ability to do so, and how students do not take into account the reality of a poor economic infrastructure. However, students do recognize that a stagnant economy will curtail the possibilities of monetary success. It is important to acknowledge what students today think about the future of the economy; twenty years ago, tuition was never thought to reach the price and investment that it has today. Although the authors reveal and extol their concepts on how society as a whole is changing inevitably through the digital revolution, it is conveyed in an editorial point of view. The author’s concerns have a sense of legitimacy, but many assumptions are made witho ut taking into account that life and society is always changing. Change, by definition, is an ever-evolving transformation that at times can seem to occur instantaneously. The credibility such as the statistics given becomes skewed and misleading to the audience because of the way Levine and Dean interpret them. Although Levine and Dean make broad assumptions, they do, however, make agreeable depictions on the concept of how grades are more inflated, but not how they perceive it to have been done. â€Å"Forty-one percent of undergrads have grades of an A- or higher† (Levine & Dean), this statistic may be true, but the point of view from the authors mislead the audience by claiming that a student who has an A got that grade because grades are inflated, which leads to their assumption that today’s undergrads are â€Å"weak academically†. The authors do not take into account that every teacher is different in his or her own way, an assumption cannot be concluding with the evidence given. This is in

The Impact of Diversity & Inclusion on Organizational Effectiveness in Research Paper

The Impact of Diversity & Inclusion on Organizational Effectiveness in the United States - Research Paper Example Avon, the company meant for women, is a well-renowned international beauty-products company, reporting of the excess of $11 billion in revenue per annum. Avon markets its products in more than 134 nations and is the globe’s largest direct seller as it markets its products through its about â€Å"6.4 million autonomous Avon sales agents†. Avon Products includes home and fashion products and beauty and cosmetic products. Avon Products, Inc is a U.S. based company and is the globe’s leading direct seller of cosmetic and beauty products, has initiated diversity and inclusion program as early as in the 1970s. Avon supported three minority communities in U.S.A such as Asians, African-Americans, and Hispanics’ networks that interconnect AVON minority networks in all the fifty states. Each network selects its top leaders, senior management will appoint an advisor and will induct representatives on the company’s Multicultural Participation Council, to which the feedback from the management is given about perspectives of employees on issues relating to diversities. Avon’s strong support to diversity and inclusion is duly recognized, and it was one of the top ten companies listed by Business Ethics magazine published from Minneapolis as â€Å"100 Best Corporate Citizens† and well admired by Fortune magazine as one the U.S.A’s most esteemed companies. Avon’s chairperson and CEO, Andrea Jung was named by Business Week Magazine as most powerful women among 50 nominations in 2009 and named as the best manager in the year 2002.

Financial Performance of Pace Leisurewear Ltd Case Study

Financial Performance of Pace Leisurewear Ltd - Case Study Example Financial statement analysis involves, comparing the performance with that of other firms in the same industry and evaluating trends in the firm's financial position over time. These studies help management identify deficiencies and then take actions to improve performance. For evaluating the financial performance of the firm ratio analysis and Du Pont system are used. According to Fraser, L. (2001) & Ormiston, A. (2001) the subordinate classifications of ratio analysis are: According to Fraser, L. (2001) & Ormiston, A. (2001) The available cash resources to satisfy the current obligations must come primarily from cash or the conversation to cash from of other current asset. For interpreting the liquidity of the firm, several types of ratios have been depicted. Current ratio, quick ratio, cash flow liquidity measures the firm's short-term solvency. Firm's ability to meet the current obligations can be judged. Liquidity position or effects of using debt can be evaluated. The available cash resources to satisfy the current obligations must come primarily from cash or the conversation to cash from of other current asset. To judge the long-term financial position of the firm, financial leverage ratios are used. Brigham, E. (2007) & Houston, J. (2007) mentioned that these ratios indicate mix of funds provided by owner and lender. According to Fraser, L. (2001) & Ormiston, A. (2001) the amount and proportion of debt in a company's capital structure is extreme ly important because of the trade off between risk and return. Gross profit margin, operating profit margin, and net profit margin represent the firm's ability to translate sales dollars into profits as different stages of measurement. Administrative efficiency can be judged through this. Brigham, E. (2007) & Houston, J. (2007) assessed the fixed asset turnover ratio measures how effectively the firm uses its fixed assets and total asset turnover measures the turnover of the entire firm's asset. So, Debt ratio, debt to equity ratio, long tem debt to total capitalization ratio have been drawn. Ratio Analysis: Liquidity Ratio: Short-term Solvency Year before last Last year Current 1.76 1.13 Quick 1.10 0.47 Cash flow liquidity 0.30 The current ratio of the firm indicates that at the end of year current asset covered current liabilities 1.13

Case Pneumonia Essay Example for Free

Case Pneumonia Essay Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs caused by an infection. It is also called Pneumonitis or Bronchopneumonia. Pneumonia can be a serious threat to our health. Although pneumonia is a special concern for older adults and those with chronic illnesses, it can also strike young, healthy people as well. It is a common illness that affects thousands of people each year in the Philippines, thus, it remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the country. There are many kinds of pneumonia that range in seriousness from mild to life-threatening. In infectious pneumonia, bacteria, viruses, fungi or other organisms attack your lungs, leading to inflammation that makes it hard to breathe. Pneumonia can affect one or both lungs. In the young and healthy, early treatment with antibiotics can cure bacterial pneumonia. The drugs used to fight pneumonia are determined by the germ causing the pneumonia and the judgment of the doctor. It’s best to do everything we can to prevent pneumonia, but if one do get sick, recognizing and treating the disease early offers the best chance for a full recovery. A case with a diagnosis of Pneumonia may catch one’s attention, though the disease is just like an ordinary cough and fever, it can lead to death especially when no intervention or care is done. Since the case is a toddler, an appropriate care has to be done to make the patient’s recovery faster. Treating patients with pneumonia is necessary to prevent its spread to others and make them as another victim of this illness. The lungs constitute the largest organ in the respiratory system. They play an important role in respiration, or the process of providing the body with oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The lungs expand and contract up to 20 times per minute taking in and disposing of those gases. Air that is breathed in is filled with oxygen and goes to the trachea, which branches off into one of two bronchi. Each bronchus enters a lung. There are two lungs, one on each side of the breastbone and protected by the ribs. Each lung is made up of lobes, or sections. There are three lobes in the right lung and two lobes in the left one. The lungs are cone shaped and made of elastic, spongy tissue. Within the lungs, the bronchi branch out into minute pathways that go through the lung tissue. The pathways are called bronchioles, and they end at microscopic air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries and provide oxygen for the blood in these vessels. The oxygenated blood is then pumped by the heart throughout the body. The alveoli also take in carbon dioxide, which is then exhaled from the body. Inhaling is due to contractions of the diaphragm and of muscles between the ribs. Exhaling results from relaxation of those muscles. Each lung is surrounded by a two-layered membrane, or the pleura, that under normal circumstances has a very, very small amount of fluid between the layers. The fluid allows the membranes to easily slide over each other during breathing. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Pneumonia is a serious infection or inflammation of your lungs. The air sacs in the lungs fill with pus and other liquid. Oxygen has trouble reaching your blood. If there is too little oxygen in your blood, your body cells can’t work properly. Because of this and spreading infection through the body pneumonia can cause death. Pneumonia affects your lungs in two ways. Lobar pneumonia affects a section (lobe) of a lung. Bronchial pneumonia (or bronchopneumonia) affects patches throughout both lungs. Bacteria are the most common cause of pneumonia. Of these, Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common. Other pathogens include anaerobic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, C. psittaci, C. trachomatis, Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis, Legionella pneumophila, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and other gram-negative bacilli. Major pulmonary pathogens in infants and children are viruses: respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, and influenza A and B viruses. Among other agents are higher bacteria including Nocardia and Actinomyces sp; mycobacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and atypical strains; fungi, including Histoplasma capsulatum, Coccidioides immitis, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Pneumocystis carinii; and rickettsiae, primarily Coxiella burnetii (Q fever). The usual mechanisms of spread are inhaling droplets small enough to reach the alveoli and aspirating secretions from the upper airways. Other means include hematogenous or lymphatic dissemination and direct spread from contiguous infections. Predisposing factors include upper respiratory viral infections, alcoholism, institutionalization, cigarette smoking, heart failure, chronic obstructive airway disease, age extremes, debility, immunocompromise (as in diabetes mellitus and chronic renal failure), compromised consciousness, dysphagia, and exposure to transmissible agents. Typical symptoms include cough, fever, and sputum production, usually developing over days and sometimes accompanied by pleurisy. Physical examination may detect tachypnea and signs of consolidation, such as crackles with bronchial breath sounds. This syndrome is commonly caused by bacteria, such as S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae. NURSING PROFILE a. Patient’s Profile Name: R. C. S. B. Age: 1 yr,1 mo. Weight:10 kgs Religion: Roman Catholic Mother: C. B. Address: Valenzuela City b. Chief Complaint: Fever Date of Admission: 1st admission

Issues of Mineral Based Economies: Nigeria and Botswana

Issues of Mineral Based Economies: Nigeria and Botswana Why do Mineral-Based Developing Economies Face Economic Problems? The Case Study of Nigeria and Botswana 1. Introduction. Mineral-based economies have been defined as â€Å"those developing countries which generate at least 8 percent of their GDP and 40 percent of their export earnings from the mineral sector†. (Auty, 1993: p. 3). Two main categories of mineral-based economies have been identified. These include hydrocarbon producers and hard mineral exporters (producers of ores such as copper and tin). (Auty, 1993). Although one may reasonably expect developing mineral-based economies to witness tremendous economic development owing to their rich mineral resources, this has hardly been the case. According to Davis (1995: p. 1766) â€Å"mineral-based economies rather have development problems than development advantages†. In addition, Davis (1998) notes that economists and political scientists have recently proposed that mineral economies’ growth is below par, despite the mineral windfalls (rents) generated from mineral extraction. The mineral sector has even been classified as a ‘loser’ sector in the economic development race. (Shafer, 1994) cited by Davis (1998). Citing from a recent World Bank conference on mining and economic development, Davis (1995: p. 1765) states that several invited experts noted with concern the historical poor per capita economic growth of the mineral-exporting nations. In particular, participants from mineral-based developing economies were justly anxious about their fate. (Davis, 1995: p. 1765). In addition to fears of the â€Å"Dutch disease† and the â€Å"resource curse thesis† (explanations of these terms follow in subsequent sections), delegates were also concern about the appropriate policy response measures to these issues. (Davis, 1995). This paper aims at explaining why mineral-based developing economies rather face economic problems rather than economic development as one would expect. In meeting with this objective, the paper makes use of two case studies of mineral-based developing economies which include Nigeria (A hydrocarbon exporter) and Botswana (a hard mineral exporter). The rest of the paper is organized as follows: section two presents a literature review on why mineral-based economies rather face economic problems rather than economic development with particular emphasis on the Dutch Disease and the resource curse thesis; section 3 presents a discussion of the case studies making reference to their GDP growth, export revenue from mineral resources and per capita GDP; and section 4 presents some conclusions and recommendations. 2. Literature Review. Much of the literature has attributed underdevelopment of mineral-based developing economies to the Dutch disease. (Roemer, 1985) cited by Davis (1998) The Dutch disease is defined as a situation where an economy highly dependent on natural resources witnesses a decline in economic development as a result of a depletion of the natural resource or a sudden drop in the price of the resource. (Auty, 1993: p. 3). According to Davis (1995: p. 1768), the Dutch disease is a ‘morbid’ term that denotes the coexistence of booming and lagging sectors in an economy due to temporary or sustained increase in earnings. Mineral economies have been identified to generate an ideal environment for the disease given their notable minerals booming sector. (Davis, 1995). Mineral-based economies are characterized by a booming minerals sector at the expense of the manufacturing and agricultural sectors. (Davis, 1995). Ross (2003) suggests that mineral exports may cause economic volatility, inco me inequality, and crowding out of productivity growth in the manufacturing sector, which effects could increase poverty and reduce social welfare. Cordon and Neary (1982) cited in Auty (2001) explain the role of the Dutch disease on the deterioration of mineral-based economies using a three-sector model composed of a resource sector such as oil or other primary product exporting industry, a sector of tradeables, such as the manufacturing and agricultural sectors and non-tradeables. According to the model, a boom in the resource sector has three effects: a spending effect; a relative price effect and a resource movement effect. Looking at the spending effect, Auty (2001) suggests that the increased export revenues increases the demand for both tradables and non-tradables although spending on tradables fails to raise their domestic prices because prices in an open economy are determined in international markets. Consequently, any excess demand is met by imports. (Auty, 2001). Looking at the relative price effect, Auty (2001) suggests that failure to sterilize the increase in foreign exchange will result to an appreciation of the currency, which will in turn reduce the domestic prices of exports as well as those of imports competing with domestic products. In addition, a currency appreciation will lead to a reduction of the rents of the booming sector but may not be sufficient to reduce the sector’s output. (Auty, 2001). Domestic prices of non-tradables will rise with the rise in demand and these prices will neither be affected by the currency appreciation nor competitive imports. This will therefore result to an increase in the prices of non-tradables relative to the prices of tradables, as well as a reduction in exports and an increase in imports. (Auty, 2001). Macroeconomic theory suggests that the national income of a country is positively related to exports and negatively related to imports. The net increase in imports therefore leads to a reduction in the national income of the mineral-based State, which in turn hurts its economic development. Finally, as concerns the resource movement effect, Auty (2001) suggests that the movement of resources between sectors will also affect capital accumulation. Assuming a relatively labour-intensive non-tradable sector and a capital-intensive tradable sector, the movement in favour of the non-tradable sector will tend to raise wages and lower returns to capital thereby reducing capital accumulation. (Auty, 2001). In addition, assuming manufacturing is favourable to growth and that mineral resource booms cause it to decline, the mineral-based economy could experience slower long-term growth than the case would be if it had no mineral resources. (Auty, 2001). To support this view, Auty (2001) cites a number of studies that argue in favour of the fact that mineral resource booms tend to limit the growth of developing mineral based economies. For example, Matsuyama (1993It has also been sugges ted that mineral windfall facilitate irresponsible fiscal and trade policies. (e.g., Gelb, 1988; Ranis, 1991; Ranis and Mahmood, 1992) cited by Davis (1988). The issue as to why mineral-based economies remain underdeveloped is somehow controversial. (Auty, 2001). On the one hand, Mainstream economists have argued that primary commodity exports are the only way that countries in the early stages of development can generate the foreign exchange necessary to pay for essential imports and to service foreign debt. (Auty, 2001). On the other hand, Structurist economists (e.g., Presbish, 1950) cited by Auty (2001) argued that a long-run decline in prices for primary exports is an inevitable result of the increasing use of synthetics, shrinking raw material content of finished products and low elasticity of demand for raw materials. In addition Auty (2001) argues that oligopolistic markets in developed countries indicated that productivities increases there were captured in the form of higher income by workers and owners, while in the developing countries productivity gains were passed on to (northern) consumers in the form of lower prices. What the structurists economists are saying in effect is that mineral-rich developing countries because they lack the capacity to transform their raw materials into finished products often supply these products to developed or industrialized countries at very low prices. Industrialised countries in turn transform these raw materials into finished products and sell them to developing countries at very high prices, which do not match the prices for which they supplied their raw materials. By so doing mineral-rich developing countries continue to face declining levels of economic developing at the expense of developed countries. This idea is consistent with dependency theory[1]. For example, Presbish (1950) cited by Auty (2001) projected a downward trend in the terms of trade for primary products in relation to manufactured goods imported by developing countries from developed countries. In addition, Abubakar (1989: p. 19) describes Africa as a continent locked in an unequal exchange with t he developed world. Being perhaps the richest continent in the world, Africa has been transformed into undeniably the poorest continent. The following is a quote from Julius Nyerere, a prominent leader in Africa: â€Å"Every morning I listen to the B.B.C. to learn the price of the cotton and coffee with which Tanzania earns its foreign exchange. The prices of tractors and other goods we need to buy are not announced; they are fixed by the manufacturers in the Developed World, and we learn what they are when we go to buy†. (Abubakar, 1989: p. 19) quoting Julius Nyerere. 3. Case Studies of Nigeria and Botswana 3.1 Nigeria Nigeria falls in the first category of mineral-based economies identified by Auty (1993) as hydrocarbon producers. Minerals constitute 62.3% of the country’s merchandise exports and 9.6% of GDP and its mineral dependence index is 36 (the mineral dependence index is defined as the mean percentage contribution of minerals to GDP, merchandise exports, and government revenues). (Davis, 1995) citing Kuburshi (1984); United Nations (1974, 1976, 1987, 1993a, 1993c); World Bank (1993). Nigeria’s mineral dependence index of 36 indicates that it is highly dependent on minerals. This is following from Auty (1993) who considers a mineral dependence index of 20% or more to indicate mineral dependence. Nigeria was ranked 19th among developing countries that depended on minerals in 1970. This was based on the ranking of countries according to mineral dependence index in 1970. Based on 1991 rankings, Nigeria still maintained the 19th position and its minerals as a percentage of merchan dise exports had increased to 86.0 percent, minerals as a percentage of GDP stood at 7.6 percent and its mineral dependence index was 46.8 percent. (Davis, 1995). According to Eifert et al. (2002) oil represents an estimated 37 percent of GDP in Nigeria, and 63 percent of consolidated government revenues. The political economy of Nigeria has had an important role to play on how oil resources are managed in Nigeria. The public sector is the principal controller of these resources, which has fuelled the functioning of an extensive machinery of rent seeking a political patronage. (Eifert et al., 2002). Nigeria is characterised by a fragile ‘political coalition’ of diverse ethnic and religious groups with diverse interests. Eifert et al. (2002) asserts that public expenditures in Nigeria are always ratcheted out of control during oil booms, leading to macroeconomic instability owing to the diverse number of ethnic and religious interests that characterise the country. For e xample Eifert et al. (2002) suggest that an estimated amount of $300billion constituting oil revenues has enriched a small group politically and socially influential elite during the last 2 to 3 decades at the expense of the majority of Nigerians who have become impoverished. This indicates that Nigeria has failed to benefit from a general economic welfare from its oil boom because of the selfish desires of a small political influential minority. This situation is consistent with Gelb (1988); Ranis (1991); Ranis and Mahmood (1992) cited by Davis (1998) who attribute poor economic development of mineral-based developing economies to mineral windfalls’ facilitation of irresponsible fiscal and trade policies. Nigeria’s case is also consistent with Karl (1997); Mahon (1992); and Shafer (1994) cited by Davis (1998) who attribute mineral-based economies’ failure to achieve substantial economic development to the entrenched socio-political rigidity and rent-seeking ass ociated with an extended period of mineral extraction. According to Eifert et al. (2002) Nigeria’s economic growth has been stagnant and it is estimated that its per capita income has fallen from approximately $800 in the early 1980s to approximately $300 as at 2002. Nigeria’s failure to grow can be attributed to its government structure. Throughout the military regime described by Eifert et al. (2002) as a period of military dictatorship, the manner in which the oil cycle was managed was solely determined by the federal executive. Government spending was so high that in 1976 it accounted for more than the entire increase in oil revenue. (Eifert et al., 2002). Nigeria therefore faced rising fiscal and current account deficits following a failure of the 1975 oil price rise to bring the budget back into a surplus. By 1981, Nigeria had accumulated huge amounts of external debt, accompanied by capital flight. (Eifert et al., 2002). Increase government spending therefore fa iled to accelerate growth and there was little evidence of an increase in overall welfare that would have been expected during the sharp real appreciation that followed the spending binge. (Eifert et al., 2002). Eifert et al. (2002) attribute Nigeria’s failure to develop to the fact that its potential gains were rather absorbed in the sharply growing inefficiency of a corrupt and progressively more wasteful and distorted economy. Nigeria has made some efforts to adopt a democratic State but Eifert et al. (2002) conclude that the outcomes in the management of Nigeria’s oil cycle in the new democracy are thus so far not very different from the past pattern. This indicates that Political institutions in Nigeria are therefore shaped by a longer history than the current political regime. There is still an excessive an unsustainable increase in public expenditure, with considerable macroeconomic instability, and little to show in the growth and economic development. (Eifert, 2002). 3.2 Botswana. Botswana was ranked 35th in the mineral dependence index for developing countries in 1970. It had 0 percent for minerals as a percentage of merchandise exports, 19.6 percent for minerals as a percentage of GDP and 9.8 for mineral dependence index. (Davis, 1995). Following the ranking based on the minerals dependence index for developing economies in 1991, Botswana was ranked 8th with an 83.0 percent of minerals as a percentage of merchandise exports. Its minerals as a percentage of GDP had also increased to 41 percent and its mineral dependence index was 62.0. (Davis, 1995). Unlike Nigeria, Botswana falls in the second category of mineral-based economies with diamond, copper, nickel and coal constituting the principal hard minerals that it exported. (Curry, 1985). According to Curry (1985), Botswana, unlike other mineral-based economies in Africa that suffer from economic stagnation and political turmoil, Botswana has recorded an economic growth and political stability as a result of its fortuitous endowment of mineral wealth and sound macroeconomic management. Despite this development, Curry (1985) suggests that this growth strategy has produced underdevelopment and economic stagnation in rural agriculture, as well as increasing economic dependency on the republic of South Africa. Increases in mineral revenue has enriched the elite who have joined white farming families as the country’s large scale cattle owners, purchasing land and cattle from savings of relatively high salaries in the mining and public sectors. This situation has created two factions in Botswana. One rich and the other poor and there is an emerging clash between the rich and the poor that could destabilise and threaten an African success story as described by Curry (1985). In effect, mineral revenue in Botswana while it has helped to fuel economic development is threatening the growth of the agricultural sector and has also helped to widen the gap between the rich and the poor. Botswa na’s case is consistent with the Dutch disease which is consistent with the idea that a boom in one sector threatens a recession of other important sectors of the economy. The boom in the mineral sector has helped to fuel a recession in the agricultural sector in Botswana. 4. Conclusions and Recommendations This paper aimed at studying why mineral-based developing economies have witnessed more of economic problems than economic development. Nigeria’s case indicates that the country has suffered from autocratic and fractional democracies that have resulted to a poor management of the revenues from oil booms. As a consequence, mineral revenue has been spent without any fiscal discipline. This has led to the satisfaction of the desires of an influential minority at the expense of the welfare of the greater majority. Nigeria has basically not witnessed any economic development throughout boom in its oil sector. On its part, Botswana has witnessed growth and development as a result of its mineral resources. However, the boom in the mineral sector is hurting the agricultural sector and the situation has only benefited the rich who are using the mineral revenue to take over all land in Botswana for cattle rearing. Like Nigeria, Botswana’s mineral revenue has to some extent benefi t an influential minority. Based on the above, this paper recommends a more democratic regimes in mineral-based economies as well as an emphasis of the importance of all sectors in the economy. Governments in developing countries need to understand the importance of the manufacturing industry. Nigeria for example should be more concern about building its own oil refineries so as to boost its manufacturing industries. In Botswana, the government should implement high taxes on the rich elite so as to help redistribute the mineral income to the poor. Subsidies should be provided to the poor farmers. By so doing, there can be an equitable distribution of land, which will in turn boost the agricultural sector. Bibliography Abubakar A. (1989). Africa and the Challenge of Development: Acquiescence and Dependency Versus Freedom and Development. Praeger Publishers. New York. Auty R. M. (2001). Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis. Routledge. Auty R. M. (2001). The Underperformance of resource-abundant economies. Resource Abundance and Economic Development. Edited by R.M Auty. UNU/WIDER studies in Development Economics. Oxford. Curry R. L (1985). Mineral-based growth and development-generated socioeconomic problems in Botswana: Rural Inequality, Water scarcity, food insecurity, and foreign dependence challenge governing class. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 319-336. Davis G. A. (1998). The minerals sector, sectoral analysis, and economic development. Resource Policy, vol. 24, No. 4, pp 217-228. Davis G. A. (1995). Learning to Love the Dutch Disease: Evidence from the Mineral Economies. World Development, vol. 23, No. 10, pp. 1765-1779. Eifert B., Gelb A., Tallroth N. B. (2002). The Political Economy of Fiscal Policy and Economic Management in Oil-Exporting Countries. Policy Research Working Paper, No. 2899. The World Bank, Africa Regional Office. Lievesley G. (2003).DependencyThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, Oxford Reference Online. Tà ©treaul M. A., Abel C. F. (1986). Dependency Theory And The Return Of High Politics. Greenwood Press. New York. Footnotes [1] Dependency theory built upon the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) which characterized the world as divided into centre (the developed, inudstrialised North) and periphery (the underdeveloped agricultural South). (Tà ©treaul and Abel, 1986; Lievesley, 2003). Dependency theory tries to explain the external mechanisms of control exerted by the centre on the periphery. The centre maintained the periphery in a state of underdevelopment for purposes of super exploitation. (Tà ©treaul and Abel, 1986; Lievesley, 2003). Dependency theory therefore indicates that underdevelopment was not an original or inherent condition, it could rather be explained by the historical relationship between the developed and developing world.

Subject Of Language And Identity

Subject Of Language And Identity I have chosen this subject of language and identity, which leads to the death of a language, if language dies. Language and identity comes under my course, part 1, under language and cultural context. On the 4th of February 2010, while browsing through BBCs website I stumbled upon a captivating and according to me a very sad article. It read last speaker of ancient language of Bo dies in India, Boa sr.s story saddened me, she died at the age of 85 and for almost thirty years she didnt have anyone to converse with in her native language. Imagine not being able to use English for thirty years, you loose the freedom to express in your first language. As a journalist I knew what it meant for the world to loose a language, its disheartening, in essence a piece of history and culture is lost, I believe it is as important to preserve and save a language as it is to save and preserve the environment, but everyone is not aware of the adverse affects language death can cause. As a journalist, I thought of it as my moral responsibility to throw light on language death and its adverse effects. Thus, I wrote this article and decided on publishing it in a newspaper as it would reach a larger group of people and educate them on why they should preserve their native language. Language death Approximately 7000 languages exist in todays world and this number is rapidly dwindling, is it a cause for concern? As globalization spreads around the world, it is natural that smaller communities would like to move out of their isolation and seek interaction with the rest of the world. The number of languages dying is sorrowful. People naturally tend to shift their language use due to globalization and they leave behind their native language if it is not spoken by a lot of people. Asking them to hold onto a language they do not want anymore and preserve it, just for the sake of linguists and not the community itself, it is a bit too much to ask for, isnt it?But theres actually more to it than what meets the eye. Why fight this? A national geographic study states that every 14 days a language dies. By 2100 more than half of the languages spoken on this earth may disappear, taking away with them a wealth of knowledge on world history, culture and natural environment. Language is the road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going. Rita Mae Brown This quote by the American writer Rita Mae Brown gives us an insight into why preserving a language is of importance. A language defines a culture, through the people who speak it. Every language has words that describe a particular cultural practice or idea, when translated into another language, the precise meaning might not come across. What we essentially lose is cultural heritage. The way of expressing the relationship with nature, with the world, it is also the way in which people express humor, their love, their life; most importantly communicating effectively with family is lost. Languages are living, breathing organisms holding connections that define a culture. When a language dies a culture is lost. Because of the close links language and identity share, if an individual or group thinks of their language as useless, they think of their identity as the same. This could have adverse effects; it could lead to depression, drug abuse and social disruption. And as parents no longer pass on their language to their children the connection between grandparents and children is lost which leads to traditional values not being handed on and theres a vacuum that remains where people for generations realize they have lost something. Many languages are in danger of extinction thathave rich oral cultures with stories, songs, and histories passed on from generation to generation, but with no particular written form. Much of what us humans know about nature is encoded in oral languages. For thousands of years now native groups have interacted closely with the natural world and have insightful understanding on local lands, plants, animals, and ecosystems. Many still are not documented by science itself. Therefore studying indigenous languages proves to be beneficial while learning about the environment and conservation. Sanskrit is one such ancient language that is loosing its prominence and its speakers decreasing everyday. It was said to be the mother of all languages. Sanskrit is not practically used and maybe that is one of reasons of its decline but I believe it should be conserved because of the traditional values it possesses and because of its richness in culture. Take for instance Arthashastra, it is an Indian treatise written in Sanskrit which deals with statecraft, economic policy and military strategy it was written all the way back in 4th century BC. These concepts are not new and modern, they have been around for a long time now, if we do not conserve Sanskrit we will loose all of this valuable knowledge and also lose a piece of history. All is not lost for those who want the smaller languages to survive. Another such language dying out is Palenquero. Palenquero is thought to the one and only Spanish-based Creole language in Latin America. Fewer than half of the community speaks it. It is spoken in the village of San Basilio De Palenque. Many children and young adults understand the language and pronounce a few phrases, which is a great sign as the village of San Basilio De Palenque is trying to preserve its language and spread it, the villages resilience is commendable. And other communities whose languages are close to extinction should look at them as an example. Why do languages die out though? Throughout history, the languages of powerful groups and imperial countries have spread while the languages of the smaller cultures and groups have become extinct. This happens due to official language policies and also the allure of speaking a highly prestigious global language such as English. These trends explain why a small country like Bolivia would have more of language diversity rather than a big country like the USA. As big languages spread, children whose parents speak a comparatively smaller language tend to grow up learning the more dominant language. Those children may never learn the smaller language, or they may just forget it as it falls out of use. These trends have occurred throughout history, but what is alarming and worrying is the rate at which languages are disappearing, it has significantly accelerated over the recent years. Associations and initiatives such as Enduring voices, Living tongue, and the endangered languages project by Google are trying to preserve language and that is a sign of hope. The organizations that are involved and that have come up with these ideas are national geographic and Google. The death of a language is an indication of a human crisis: the loss of a store of wisdom, the sense of a community being thrown away. As we try to stop global warming and save the environment, we should also try and save our languages, as they are an integral part of our heritage.

Dennis the Menis movie report Essay -- essays research papers

Dennis the Menace Report In the movie Dennis the Menace, there are many different age groups represented; childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and older adulthood. During childhood, children are carefree, fearless, talkative, curious, and playful. In adolescence, teens are faced with many important responsibilities and decisions. They start to become more mature and become interested in the opposite sex and sexual actions. When you enter into the adulthood and older adulthood world then you are faced with many more decisions and obstacles including; what job you are going to choose to do for the rest of your life and when or if you are even going to get married and start a family. Also, you must think about buying food, clothes, a house, car and other necessities or wants. Along with each age group comes some worries. When you are in the childhood age group, things that seem big to you actually are not all that big. For example, when Dennis’ mom tells him he has to go to Margaret’s house while she goes to work all summer, he acts like it is the end of the world. In the adolescent age group things get a little more stressful. Some things that are stressful for the adolescents are keeping up their grades because school has gotten harder, getting a job, making the team, and things like that. With the adulthood and older adulthood age group comes the realization of necessities needed to just get by because it is the first time you are supporting yourself. As time goes on you ge...

How do pre-1914 writers create a sense of suspense, mystery and fear? :: Free Essay Writer

How do pre-1914 writers create a sense of suspense, mystery and fear? Comparison of three short novels The Red Room is a very good ghost story that was written by H.G Wells. The story was intended to be scary when it was written and it uses tension, atmosphere and a scary plot. Without these key features it would not succeed as a successful ghost story. The reason for this is to entice the reader by giving them small clues so it does not give the plot away, but you have to read on because it does not give enough away only small clues, so it is still a mystery. The main thing that helps create the good atmosphere for a ghost story is that it is set in the old castle. It is occupied by the three old people. They’re described as custodians. The candles that are situated round the castle also helps create atmosphere because it shows that it is in the night and most ghost stories are set at night and it then in turn provides an eerie atmosphere. At the beginning of the story the old people help add to the atmosphere by saying the things that had apparently happened there in the Red Room in the past. These things include; 'This night of all nights,' this makes it sound like it could be a type of anniversary of when something or someone had died or an event happened and this night is the worst night to go to the Red Room. 'In which the young Duke had died.' This shows you that something apparently had happened at the castle, a person had died in the Red Room which adds more evidence to there being a ghost being in the room. This then starts to make 'The Red Room' a better ghost story. 'And are you really going?' This shows that the man cannot believe that he is going to The Red Room. Other things such as the journey also turn out to be a good way of building atmosphere in the story. The way to the room is deliberately a long journey because if it was just up the corridor then there would be no suspense about the room and what can happen on the way to the room. The darkness of the journey also helps to create a ghostly atmosphere because it makes the littlest things look like the scariest things as in the dark things are not portrayed as what they really are. 'The ornaments and conveniences of the room about them were ghostly.' The silence of the journey helps to create echoes which add also to

Different social, professional and cultural contexts Essay

When communicating with others we need to consider the context within which we are working. We would need to adapt the way we communicate for different situations, most people do this automatically. Your school should have a range of planned communication for dealing with other professionals; there would be informal communications, meetings and discussions. Talking is not the only way we communicate. The way we respond to others, how quickly we respond either in person, by telephone, email, etc, respecting other cultures, for example in some cultures it is polite to maintain eye contact but not in other cultures. Always make sure you can be understood whether talking to someone or in a letter or email. Social One good way to learn about your school’s culture and much more is to begin investing in relationships with other adults in the school. Value their insights, value them and the relationships you have with them. Read more:  Different reasons people communicate  essay Lunchtime in the staff room can be a good time to have a little chat/conversation or catch up with them. You are likely to find out about children with behavioural problems and how they tackle these issues, what’s coming up next in the school and you are less likely to have the feeling of being left out. If every time you go into the staffroom for lunch, you are seen and heard to be talking loudly on your mobile phone, texting or just doing something else which is alienating you from everyone else, some people may find it rude and disregarding of others and so less likely to include you in conversations. Professional Once you become employed to work in a professional setting like a school, you are representing the school and should conduct yourself in a professional  manner. This professional manner should include the way that you communicate with the pupils and other adults. You obviously cannot use words like ‘lol’,’defo’, and ‘rofl’, when you are sending an email or writing a comment on a child’s work or communicating in a professional way in school. You should always use appropriate language and gestures for children, young people and adults an ensure that they understand what you mean. Cultural Culture is the way that we identify groups of people who share common characteristics including language, values, social practices and attitudes. We are not usually aware of our culture until we meet someone from a different culture. The language, gestures, dressing, mannerisms, etc become obviously different. The same gestures may mean different things in different cultures. For example, in some countries it is generally disrespectful to look at someone directly and boldly in the eyes, especially if they are your senior (older than you, your boss, or of a higher social class/status), whereas in the United Kingdom, not making eye contact can be seen as a sign of dishonesty. If someone avoids making eye contact with you when speaking, perhaps that is the impact of culture – not that they are rude, shy, uninterested or even dishonest. Where ever possible I would learn and adjust to the other person’s culture to ensure that we communicate effectively and if I was unsure I would ask questions (not personal) and try to find out more. Bibliography Book: Heinemann work based Learning – Supporting teaching and learning in schools (primary) by Louise Burnham and Brenda Baker. Websites: www.tafocus.co.uk/qcf-levels-and-units- QCF levels and units/Teaching Assistant Focus.

McClelland and Maslow Theory Essay

Ameri posts Psychologist David Clargonnce McClelland (1917-98) proposed that every some superstar pay back specific requests that can be classed into motivation for achievement (nAch), accept for stand (nAff), and penury for power (nPow). disregardless of gender, culture or age, serviceman being beings have three motivating drivers that will accept their behavior. People with a spirited ask for achievement seek to excel, to accomplish in relation to a set of standards, to crusade to achieve success. High nAch individuals prefer dissemble that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance.There is a strong take away for feedback as to superintend the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to break away alone or with other towering achievers. High achievers ar not evoke in rewards or money unless these rewards chew over a measurement of their success. Their relish is to do a task better than it has been through with(p) before. The indiv iduals with high achievement ask are highly activated by competing and contest work. They to a fault look for promotional opportunities in job. gage, the individuals who are motivated by affiliation have an urge for a gracious and supportive environment. They prefer to spend cartridge holder creating and maintaining neighborly relationships, enjoy being a part of sort outs, and have a desire to feel loved and accepted. Individuals with high nAff get hold of for friendships, prefer cooperative situations rather than militant ones, and desire relationships involving a high spot of mutual understanding. Individuals having high affiliation of necessity prefer working in an environment providing greater individualised interaction.Such race have a invite to be on the good books of all. They generally cannot be good leaders. A high need for power may be expressed as personalized power or complaisantized power. Those with a high need for power work outdo when theyre in charg e. Because they enjoy competition, they do well with goal-oriented projects or tasks. They may also be very effective in negotiations or in situations in which other party must be win over of an idea or goal. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable.Persons who need institutional power (also known as complaisant power) want to organize the efforts of others to gain the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be much effective than those with a high need for personal power. McClellands theory of need allows for the shaping of a persons need training programs can be used to modify ones need profile. The use of this information is to lead, praise, and motivate your team more effectively, and to better construction your teams roles.Maslow Theory In 1943 a Psychologist Mr. Abraham Harold Maslow suggested his Theory of Human Motivation. concord to him, our actions are motivat ed in secern achieve certain of necessity. This hierarchy suggests that batch are motivated to fulfill elemental needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. The hierarchy of needs take ons five motivational needs, often interpret as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Maslow identified five types or sets of human need arranged in a hierarchy of their importance and priority.They are physiological, safety, love, and watch and growth needs (self-actualization). Physiological needs are the basic needs for sustaining human life. These needs include food, shelter, clothing, rest, air, and water. These needs cannot be postponed for long. Unless and until these basic physiological needs are pleasant to the required goal, other needs do not motivate an employee. Second is safety, these include needs for safety and security. bail needs are important for survival, simply they are not as demanding as the physiological needs.Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health care, safe neighborhoods, and shelter from the environment. Next is social needs. An employee is a human being is justly treated as a social animal. He desires to stay in group. He feels that he should belong to one or the other group and the member of the group should accept him with love and affection. He needs friends and interaction with his friends and superiors of the group such as fellow employees or superiors. After the firstborn three needs have been satisfied, reckon needs becomes increasingly important.These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment. Lastly is self-actualization. Self-actualization is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming. It is a growth need. A worker must work expeditiously if he is to be ultimately happy. Here, a person feels that he should accomplish something in his life. He wants to utilize his potentials to the maximum extent and desire s to become what one is capable of becoming. though everyone is capable of self-actualization, many do not reach this stage. This need is fully satisfied rarely.

Background and Politics in John Milton`s Paradise Lost

Milton has dramatic vision of divinity in history, re-creating the key stories of Scripture. Once an brisk participant in the policy-making turmoil of seventeenth-century Eng polish, he cleanway asserts in promised land wooly- masterminded Eternal Providence that transcends non only his contemporary England but similarly the sinful organises of men in history. Milton finds the will of God, not in the reformation of the g overn amiable military reality, but in the ghostly reformation of each individual. thence he plows a illusionist, seeing the things invisible and proclaiming the value that be eternal.Recent critics have called attention to Miltons medical prognosis of history reflected in his promised land upset. They incline to lay much emphasis on his governmental awargonness to see spectral aspects that infralie Miltons poetic imagination. Christopher Hill (1978), for example, stresses the magnificence of a diachronic approach to Miltons enlightenment Lost. Hill connects Miltons ideas, or even his theology, to the policy-making circumstances of seventeenth-century England.For Hill, it is astonishing if heaven Lost is not approximately(predicate) politics he calls it a different type of governmental action from those which have failed so unhappily (67). It is true, that Miltons concern with political circumstances is an intimately-valuable element that enables him to perform his role as a prophet and to participate in the diachronic process with a predictive vision of teaching and correcting his contemporaries. heaven Lost is obviously political poem. The text conceals the historical traces of its give composition so skil in full that readers are standardizedly to forget its political significance.While promised land Lost was evidently be over the long period forwards and later the renovation, it saying youthful political problems in post-revolutionary social club. Among Miltons three major poems, the sket ch heroic poem thus addressed itself ab bring out specifically to the Restoration audience. The drive of this musical theme is to historicise Paradise Lost as a Restoration poem in ensnare to propose a new political way of reading the epic. No incline economizer dealt more tellly with nirvana lost and redeemed than John Milton, and this work analyses his uses of Paradise to express his ambivalence about conglomerate.After the establishment of Puritan Massachusetts in 1630, British colonial energies (and Miltons) were absorbed by internal conflicts through the civil wars of the 1640s and into the Interregnum of the 1650san invagination brought to an end by Oliver Cromwell in 16541656 with his unilateral Western Design against Spanish America. even much Paradise Lost (1667) reveals Miltons double-mindedness about such designs, there can be little doubt that the highwater excoriation of Miltonic anti-imperialism is found in Paradise Regaind (1671).It is in this brief epic that heroism is most fully reimagined along Augustinian and humanist lines. here(predicate) Jesus, Christendoms moral model, rejects root the temptations of patriotic subjection and, beyond these, the temptations of universal virtue. Therefore, Miltons poetic message is for his contemporary England. Even though Milton as a poet-prophet does not ignore the situations in which he is placed, the message he delivers in Paradise Lost contains a ghostly meaning that transcends the political and temporal world of his time.A similarity between Milton and Isaiah can be found in their pursuit of the unfailing truth that God is our salvation. Isaiah foresees that truth in the coming(prenominal) history of Israel, go Milton sees it in passs historical preview, which is a deal a historical review for Milton. With regard to Isaiahs prophetic vision, Hobart freewoman argues that Not e genuinely prophecy unavoidably to be traced to a definite contemporary historical situation, nor direc tly applicable to the genesis to whom it is spoken.If we apply this to Miltons poetic work, Milton speaks from an ideal, future outdoor stage as if it were the present or historical (166). Milton clearly demonstrates his role as prophet in the culture cardinal books of Paradise Lost by immersing himself in future events in order to allow Adam a vision of the restoration of man from his fallen state. Paradise Lost deals with Gods handling of human affairs in history, and out of that context, delivers the spiritual message to the individual man. The set-back is the revelation of divine truth, the second the lightness of the mind.Milton presents in Paradise Lost two important aspects of Gods purpose first, Gods macrocosmic purpose in history, and second, His microcosmic purpose in each individual soul. These two elements, historical and spiritual, are essential comp hotshotnts of the poem. Milton in his literature shares the fundamental outlook that traces its roots to the pol itical theory of dedicated war. In the case of the urbane Wars, this occurrence is only natural considering the boundary to which the Civil Wars were looked upon as divine wars two by those who upheld in employment the courting of God against the king and by those who inculcated holy war ideology into the warriors.It is no possibility that the War in promised land is conceived as a civil or gut War (6. 259). In this sense, Abdiel, that most point-blank of nonconformists, refers ironically to himself as a non-conformist and to the host of God as sectarians (6. 145-47). Milton cut no contradiction in the situation that as one who supported the tumult against Gods so-called vicegerent on earth, he could write an epic portraying the evils of rebelling against Gods true Vice-gerent in Heaven (5. 609).Miltons celestial battle transcended the conflicts of Miltons own time and expressed the larger conceptions of holy war, conceptions that are both cosmic and apocalyptic. The historical orientation of Paradise Lost in the political context of Restoration gild requires a juxtaposition of the brief epic not so much with Miltons political pamphlets before the Restoration, like Eikonok failes (1649) or The Readie and Easie street (1660). Paradise Lost is historically in closer proximity to Of True faith than to any different polemical composition of the author.With all their generic differences, the two works, manduction the plain style peculiar to the Restoration Milton, were published in a crucial period before and after the proclamation of Indulgence in 1672, when Restoration society was groping for a new focus after the lapse of the Clarendon Code which had obligate public regulations on the matter of undercover faith. Paradise Lost appeared when Miltons contemporaries were desirous to settle the developing issue of the race between the public and private spheres in Restoration society.And should I at your blameless innocence Melt, as I d o, up to now public reason just, Honor and empire with revenge enlarged By check this new world, compels me now To do what else though damned I would abhor. demon, John Milton, Paradise Lost 4. 38892 Whoever fights monsters should see to it that in the process he does not do a monster. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and immorality 4. 146 In October 1568, 114 side seamen, their ship ill damaged by a battle in the Gulf of Mexico, voluntarily maroon themselves on the coast of the Yucatan peninsula.They stepped ashore into what would become forthe British one of their most luridly imagined hells a howling tropical jungle, move with disease, crawling with exotic vermin, peopled with unruly tribesmen, and, worst of all, governed by Spaniards. Fifteen years later one survivor, Miles Philips, landed stern in England alone, bearing on his corpse the marks of chains, the rack, and the lash, and bearing in his mind the kind of stories that haunt the hearers sleep. These stories, which further disastrous the already Black Legend of Spain, he recorded for Richard Hakluyt, who included them in his 1589 ace Navigations (9398445).We cannot adequately understand the British empire or its literary productions unless we see them in the tremendous Spanish shadow that loomed so large at the empires birth. Paradoxically, Spains empire very nearly made British involution impossible, and yet it created conditions that made British imperialism feasible. Furthermore, Spanish threats made English colonization await materially necessary and above all, Spanish heinousness made the English reply seemto most Protestant imaginations, at l atomic number 99spiritually the unspoiled wayeous.Indeed, Spain menaced the English Protestant imagination far longer than it menaced the English nation. As a case in point, this work examines one of the enduring literary fruits that encyclopedic piece of Protestant imagining know as Paradise Lost. Composing one hundred fifty years a fter Las Casas first compared the conquistadors to demons, and nearly a century after the last serious Spanish threat to English interests, John Milton nevertheless chose to compare his Prince of shadow to a conquistador. byout his epic, Milton amplifies deuces audacity and atrocity with frequent, implicit parallels to Cortess conquest of Mexico.These Spanish inflections afforded Milton specific means to demonize the Devil. They similarly declare the degree to which the British were able to diversify their own daunting imperial liabilities into ideologic advantages and virtues. Many parallels between the Satanic and Iberian enterprises in Paradise Lost rent basic matters of setting and plot. David Quint has looked for analogues in the main to Portugal and the East, demonstrating that Satans pilot in books 2 and 3 parodies Vasco da Gamas discovery of the sea route to India, as rendered by Luis de Canoens in Os Lusiadas.But Miltons allusions to Spains horse opera discoverie s are equally suggestive. These write pop up with Satans com electric charge in Pandemonium. Speaking under the Vatican-like dome of Hells capital, his lieutenant friction match climaxes the beastly consult by proposing the easier enterprise (2. 345) of an set upon on the happy isle (2. 410) of this new world (2. 403). here perhaps or so advantageous act may be achievd By sudden onset all with Hell fire To waste his total Creation, or possess All as our own, and drive as we were driven, The puny habitants, or if not drive, Seduce them to our Party (2. 36268) Beelzebub envisions a kind of geopolitical coup, one that we can recognize as kindred to Spains American outflanking of its Islamic and Christian rivals at the end of the fifteenth century (Hodgkins 66). Also, while Satan the navigator may correspond da Gama and Columbus, as a traveler he is even more like the wily Cortes. There is more at work in Satans successful voyage than mariners luck, skill, and perseverance t here is also, most essentially, social guile.In his crucial negotiations at the frontiers guarded by Sin, demise, and Chaos in book 2, Satan seems less like Columbus the in earnest persistent and more like Cortes the trickster. depression of all, both Satan and Cortes opportunistically stoke the fires of rancour and dissension. Cortess chaplain, Gomara, writes that, upon reaching the Mexican coast, Cortes found Montezumas far imperial vassals ripe for rebellion and desire their aid and direction. The Indians of Cempoala and of Tlaxcala further inland were not well affected to Mutezuma, but readie, as farre as they durst, to entertayne all occasions of warre with him (Purchas 15. 509).Similarly, in Paradise Lost, Sin and Chaos, while nominally subject to God th Ethereal fag (2. 978), willingly receive Satans flattering promises that his mission will yield rich award and restore their rightful power and sovereignty over the realms lately possessed by the divine Emperor. I sh all soon devolve, Satan assures his young woman and lover, Sin, And bring ye to the place where Thou and Death shall be fed and filld / Immeasurably, all things shall be your prey (2. 83940, 84344).Further on, Satan implores the personified Chaos to direct my course, for, he promises, Directed, no mean stipend it brings To your behoof, if I that Region lost, All ravishment thence expelled, reduce To her original wickedness and your sway (2. 98084). So Chaos blesses the guess and shows the way, and Satan wastes no time in launching out on the last leg of his journey to this frail creative activity (2. 1030). After Satans voyage and worldly landfall, Miltons reimagining of earth and Eden as an idealized western planting permeates the poem.Though he explicitly compares the mollify gales that dispense / Native perfumes to the exotic east of Mozambic and Araby the blest (4. 15663 passim), aromatic breezes also announce the American shore from Columbuss first scent of San Salv ador and Hispaniola, to Michael Draytons Edenic Virginia and Andrew Marvells imagined Bermudas, the west is also the land of spices (Knoppers 67). Yet Milton evokes not only pre-Columbian Americas fragrant garden delights but also its friendly and urban splendors.The conquistadors came west for treasure, and Satan has an midpoint for it as wellthe golden Chain that Satan sees linking Earth to Heaven (2. 1051), the potable gold of Earths rivers (3. 608), and especially the vegetable gold hanging from the Trees of Life and cognition (4. 21820 9. 57578). Similarly, Cortes wonders at the Mexicans simplicitie in undervaluing their plethoric gold and touts it as a literally consumable elixir, telling Montezumas emissary that he and his fellowes had a disease of the sum of money, whereunto Gold was the best(p) remedie (Purchas 15. 507 8).Similarly Satan, by claiming to have consumed the golden fruit, persuades fair Eve in book 9 of its transformative powers (9. 568612). However, when Satan first sees the Earth, Milton compares the view to a city, not to a garden, and the view is strikingly similar to the Spanish scouts first bunch of the Mexican capital from the barren volcanic pass of Mount Popocatepetl, looking down on the cities glittering on Lake Texcoco. In Paradise Lost, the epic simile unfolds as Satan Looks down with wonder at the sudden view Of all the solid ground at once.As when a Scout Through dark and desert ways with divulge gone Obtains the brow of nigh high-climbing Hill, Which to his eye discovers unaware The darlingly prospect of some foreign land First seen, or some renownd Metropolis With glistering Spires and Pinnacles adornd, Which now the Rising Sun gilds with his beams (3. 54244, 54651). Likewise, in Gomaras words, Tenochtitlan and its sister cities were an exceeding goodly sight. But when Cortes saw that beautiful thing, his joy was without comparison. Whoever hath good eyesight might discern the gate of Tenochtitlan.. . . These T owres of the cities Coyoacan and Vizilopuchtli are planted in the Lake, and are adorned with more Temples, which have many faire Towres, that doe beautifie exceedingly the Lake. and many drawne bridge built upon faire arches (Purchas 15. 52021, 522, 523). Even the roadways into Tenochtitlan and Eden are similarly convenient. Gomara writes that the Mexican capital was entered over a faire calsey causeway, upon which eight horsemenne may demode on ranke, and so directly straight as though it had been made by line (Purchas 15.523). Likewise, Satan sees A pass down to th Earth, a passage round-eyed (3. 528). In terms of Englands domestic affairs, Miltons return to poetry after 1660 was no genuine quietism or withdrawal from politics, but rather, as Laura Lunger Knoppers has suggested, a complex internalization of Puritan discipline that can buy in on the Good superannuated piss in the very theater of the Stuart monarchy. Thus in Paradise Lost, Milton seeks to restore right reas on with an eventual view to restoring right rule at home. In other words, his retreat is strategical.Similarly, beyond the domestic sphere, when Paradise Lost exploits colonial imagery so extensively so soon after the failure of Cromwells imperial republic, Milton is not still spiritualizing a language of defeated earthly hopes (Barnaby 56). Instead, he is practicing another kind of strategic retreat, engaging in what Blake aptly called mental fightstiffening the hearts sinews against all temporally and temporarily ascendant tyrannies, whether in the heart or at home or abroad. He is biding his time, the readers time, the nations time, serving by stand and waiting for Providence to show his hand.Like Cortes the conquistador, like the conquistadorial Satan, Milton knows that conquest, and reconquest, start with the souls invisible empire. And Milton never fully abandons his belief that war against flesh and breed has its place in the wars of the spirit. Works Cited Barnaby, Andr ew. other Rome in the West? Milton and the imperial Republic, 16541670. Milton Studies 30 (1990). Hill, Christopher. Milton and the English Revolution. New York, 1978. Hodgkins, Christopher. Reforming imperium Protestant Colonialism and Conscience in British Literature.University of Missouri Press Columbia, MO, 2002. King, mob. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets. Berkeley University of California Press, 1977. Knoppers, Laura Lunger. Historicizing Milton Spectacle, Power, and Poetry in Restoration England. Athens University of Georgia Press, 1994. Milton, John. Paradise Lost Paradise Regained Samson Agonistes. pitman Books New York, 1962. Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas His Pilgrimes. 20 vols. Glasgow James MacLehose and Sons, 19051907.